“Fashion with a message”, “sustainable fashion”, “slow fashion”, “circular fashion”, “compassionate fashion”. whatever you call it its worth talking about. To be supported as a concept, consumers must be educated. so, heres a few facts, strategies, and tips to help you on your eco-journey.

What is Sustainability?

“Throughout the world, people want the same things: access to clean air and water; economic opportunities; a safe and healthy place to raise their kids; shelter; lifelong learning; a sense of community; and the ability to have a say in the decisions that affect their lives.” (ISC) Sustainability is so much more than just being green, because as we know the environment affects the community and the community affects the environment. The key component of the word sustainability is a long-term perspective and adapting and anticipating changes in the present and future. To do that takes a lot of hard work and togetherness. The goal is shared prosperity where everyone has access to safety, decision-making, and human needs no matter our backgrounds. “A sustainable community manages its human, natural, and financial capital to meet current needs while ensuring that adequate resources are available for future generations.”

Human sustainability involved things like health and education systems and access to services, nutrition, knowledge and skills. In balancing these needs, businesses as an individual promote values that respect human capital. 

Social Is about preserving for future generations and knowing the impact we have on others and on the world. This pillar promotes cohesion, reciprocity, and honesty in relationships to maintain and improve social quality in society. 

Economic aims to improve standard of living through capital and the efficient use of assets. The key goal is to maintain profitability over time. 

Lastly but certainly not least is environmental sustainability. This is about improving human welfare by protecting natural capital. “Initiatives and programs are defined environmentally sustainable when they ensure that the needs of the population are met without the risk of compromising the needs of future generations.”  A hefty goal of achieving a positive economic outcome while not causing any harm is possible yet requires a lot of attention. 

Sustainability as a whole is all about balance and maintaining. each pillar overlaps with the other and work in cohesion to better the societal welfare. 

Why is sustainable fashion important?

“What so many of us forget or perhaps don’t realize is that sustainability is not just about using bamboo based fibers and slapping the term ‘sustainable’ on the hang tag. True sustainability comes when the entire supply chain of that bamboo is sustainable… However, we haven’t truly achieved an ecosystem of true sustainability… We have to understand that a supply chain is its own ecosystem that must be sustained and supported indefinitely in order for the world to see true environmental impact. We must design, develop, and manufacture into that premise.” (Melissa Nataadiningrat)

A polyester garment takes up to 200 years to decompose. (Amanda Cotler)

The fashion industry is the world’s second largest polluter. (April Calahan and Cassidy Zachary)

“Microplastics are a huge concern for not only the environment, but also our health. These synthetic fibers are forms of plastic, and every time you wash fabrics made from these fibers, microplastics are breaking off, and many eventually end up in the oceans, ocean life, and our mouths.” (Megan Eddings)

“A lot of this clothing ends up in the dump. The equivalent of one garbage truck full of clothes is burned or dumped in a landfill every second.” (Morgan McFall-Johnsen)

How can you tell when clothing is sustainable?

“When we learn about “sustainable fashion”, we soon realize that there are many forms of (more) sustainable fashion.”

I-4 in this graphic are up to the designer and brand while 5-7 are in the hands of the consumer, and I will get to those later on. On Demand and Timeless design are aspect of production that are pretty straight forward but within Green design and Ethical production there are many layers and in some cases choices to what you as a designer value and what you want your consumers to value. For instance It is very difficult to find materials to create from that are natural and organic, vegan, low or no impact dyed, and made with ethical wages and adhere to your aesthetic and brand. Some amazing people are able to achieve all of those but usually prioritize some over the others like vegan fashion or organic materials. This is why designers and consumers alike really need to do their research and make educated choices with clothes. 

Compassionate fashion refers to respect for workers, societies, animals, and the environment. It is based on feeling true compassion when you hold an item of clothing rather than simply being aware. 

Textile recycling is a big one I can get behind because you are using stuff that already exists. This is along the lines of circular fashion. Upcycling can be applied to fashion, furniture design, interior design, and many more consumer driven markets. “ In essence, upcycling is not simply about creating something new from wasted material, but rather about recognizing the inherent value of any material and to design unique and appreciated products – ideally with practical, universal and long-lasting values.” You still also have to factor in the other ethical debates within upcylcing. This is why it is so hard to get the industry to switch over. 

Another huge part of this topic is ethical fashion. who made your items, in what environment, how were they paid? These are all very important questions that we sadly have to ask as designers. your workers do matter. And giving people and members of certain cultures and subcultures good paying and workable jobs is important. Consumers can research and specifically shop from brands who employ and thus empower women in third world countries with fair wages that would otherwise not be able to provide for their family. Ethical fashion is really important among all the other aspects of Sustainability. 

How can consumers contribute?

Re/make made a really good information guid called “wear your values” to teach consumers how to support sustainable fashion. They are your go to source when you need direction to sustainable brands. 

Their first tip is to buy less stuff. I have learned through my eco-journey that there are actually five R’s instead of the three we all know and preach: the first being refuse, then reduce, reuse, repurpose, and recycle.

Along the same lines, the next tip is to buy purposefully. This means avoiding fast fashion. At first glance the price tags attached to sustainable clothing seems steep, but fast fashion is designed to fall apart so in the end, you are spending the same amount or saving buy investing in less pieces that you love and will last longer. Also this includes thinking before you buy be really considering if the piece is your style not just trendy, is it flattering, will it work with other staples in your closet, what statement is it making, and asking yourself “will I wear this at least 30 times?” That being said, everyone’s lifestyle is different but these considerations are a great place to start. If you think of buying clothing the way you would buy nice jewelry, your closet will become a lot more sustainable. 

Another key to sustainable buying is buy responsibly. For this step, you need to know your own values. As I have mentioned above, there are different versions of a sustainable piece of clothing. Consumers should know what cause is the most important to them basically. This takes time and research to figure out of course. And through this, you can find the right brands that support your values. An important part of this is to not make a compromise on value for a lower price. It is easy to stick to your values when you know where a garment is made, by whom, and with what processes. 

Next is to buy empowered. “You are a powerful force for change. We think, “oh one cheap purchase here and there won’t make a difference,” but consumers, employees, and voters are realizing the power of their single voice.” This is so important. Have you ever heard the term you vote with your wallet, sustainable fashion is the perfect example of that. This is also the category where you can support women, fair wages, and company transparency. “You don’t have to feel helpless about the the abuses in the fashion industry, you can make maximum impact with your wallet!”

The next few tips are: Mend it, Thrift it, Trade it, and Borrow it. All of these should be close to your first resort because they don’t require any new clothing production which is the real killer. The best way to save our earth is to use what already exists on it. Sewing and altering clothing is a hugely beneficial skill to learn in this case. Or even being able to take an item to the dry cleaner or tailor. Take your time to do this rather then spending it going to shop for a new item that will just fall apart faster. Buying used and thrifting so so fun and fashionable. Fashion will always repeat itself in my opinion and there are so many options out there at thrift stores. I also am an avid collector and lover of vintage clothing, its so classic and unique. There are also options for renting formal wear, borrowing from friends and family, and trading in items with some special sites. 

The last tip is to buy for you! Forget trends and fads and opt for timeless pieces that really speak to your personality. This will ultimately pay off way more for yourself and the environment than investing in fast fashion. Buying sustainably will also help eliminate any buyer’s remorse that we all feel from impulse buys. It is impossible to keep up with trends anyway, so make your own timeless style and show it off, even if it is a repeat outfit. If you feel amazing wearing that dress, where it as much as possible! Fashion is for you!

When in doubt refer to this pyramid for responsible fashion otherwise known as the buyerarchy of needs or the ethical closet pyramid. 

1. Value and take care of the clothes you already own

2. Repurpose by mending and shopping less

3. Borrow from others

4. Swap or trade to fill the new thing urge

5. Thrift vintage and used when possible

6. Make it yourself

7. And lastly, buy by shopping ethically and with intention

Sources

remake.world

https://www.iheart.com/podcast/105-dressed-the-history-of-fas-29000690/episode/fashion-and-sustainability-an-interview-with-29770846/

sustain.org

https://www.futurelearn.com/courses/sustainable-business/1/steps/157438

greenstrategy.se

https://www.businessinsider.com/fast-fashion-environmental-impact-pollution-emissions-waste-water-2019-10

“Atelier is a workshop or studio, especially one used by an artist or haute couture fashion designer.”

Literally, yes, that is the definition of our topic today. But, an artist’s studio means a whole lot more than being a room or a practicality. As my fellow artists that are reading might also understand, where you create is a very near and dear space to you.

“A couture atelier is a glorified sewing circle, with older hands showing the greenhorns how it’s done, and everybody quietly gabbing as they work.” (Cathy Horyn)

 In regards to the fashion atelier, there have been many changes to that idea throughout the years. But, it usually always involves this other big word that most of us have heard before but not really pinpointed what it really means. “Haute couture is the French term for high fashion and refers to the creation of exclusive made-to-order clothing.” So, Haute Couture is a fashion designers art masterpieces. It really is an art form and let’s delve into the world of the artist’s creation room. 

Worth is considered the father of haute couture and therefore he can be considered the father of the fashion atelier. Because of his success his “House of Worth” became a booming business even to be taken over by his two sons. Important and wealthy clients would travel far a wide to Paris to get a whole wardrobe created for them by the House of Worth and this is why they are still surviving to this day. 

“Worth’s designs are notable for his use of lavish fabrics and trimmings, his incorporation of elements of historic dress, and his attention to fit. While the designer still created one-of-a-kind pieces for his most important clients, he is especially known for preparing a variety of designs that were shown on live models at the House of Worth. Clients made their selections and had garments tailor-made in Worth’s workshop.” (Jessa Krick)

Photo from the Met collection.

“Worth transformed a relatively decentralized industry composed of many individual dressmakers working in small establishments into a large-scale industry employing hundreds, if not thousands. Worth consolidated fabric procurement with production (before this, it was customary for clients to bring their own fabrics to the dressmaker).” (Adam Lid)

Maison Lesage was the preeminent house for highly skilled embroidery and handiwork. Artisians were nicknamed “petite mains’ and they did everything from attaching sequins and beads to delicate fabrics and ribbons for designers Dior and Chanel. 

Phillippe Atienza is the master shoemaker for Massaro which has been passed down through three generations of artisans. With clients like the Duchess of Windsor, Marlene Dietrich, and Barbra Hutton this house has had a huge impact in the world of haute couture shoes. 

“Jacqueline Smeyers Picot, the chief of Jean Paul Gaultier’s atelier, was saying that it’s the most important thing she has learned in 40 years of dressmaking. The effect in a dress is lyrical.” (Cathy Horyn) 

In 1868, designers had to meet special specifications according to the Le Chamber Syndicale de la Haute Couture to called themselves a couture house. In 1921, There was action to be taken to protect designs of haute couture from piracy. In 1945, new specifications were added: – Designs must be made-to-order for private clients, with one or more fittings

– Each atelier must have at least 20 members of staff

– Each season, the couture house must present a collection of at least 35 runs with both daytime and evening wear to the Paris press.

“In 1947, haute couture was revived in Paris with Christian Dior’s New Look. Yves St Laurent launched the first freestanding couture boutique in 1966. And in 1970 the number of couture houses dropped to just 19, and most of the designers blamed the strict rules set in place. And lastly, in 2016, “In one of the most memorable fashion moments in recent history, Karl Lagerfeld staged the Fendi autumn/winter 2016 couture show on the Trevi Fountain in Rome. In celebration of the house’s 90th anniversary – and the brand’s second haute fourrure show – models including Kendall Jenner and Bella Hadid walked on water in a collection entitled ‘Legends and Fairytales’.” (Harper’s Bazzar)

Sources

https://www.apparelsearch.com/terms/a/atelier-term.html

https://www.popsugar.com/fashion/photo-gallery/24123374/image/24135622/What-do-haute-couture-atelier-mean

https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/wrth/hd_wrth.htm

https://lilyabsinthe.com/

1stdibs.com behind the Seams: 8 Elite Haute Couture Ateliers

https://www.thecut.com/2015/07/cathy-horyn-inside-couture-ateliers.html#_ga=2.248360967.1614953383.1587757362-1503798227.1587757362

https://www.harpersbazaar.com/uk/fashion/fashion-news/news/a31123/the-history-of-haute-couture/

https://stock.adobe.com/

Textile art has been around forever. For utility, functionality, necessity, blankets, clothes, home furnishing; it is all around us. but over the years it has developed into more artistic practices and theres also great detail and difficulty in traditional practices. sculpture and clothes for aesthetics only now. it is its own booming industry encompassing consumerism and the art world.

Weaving

The first kind of woven art known as “true weaving” include things like basket weaving and truly hand manipulated textiles. To be woven the textile must have warp yarns and weft yarns running perpendicular to each other and that is the biggest difference between woven and knit fabric of today. The earliest signs of woven art come from the mesopotamian area and egypt being a huge region for commerce and very good at their crafts. there have been many well crafted fragments of cotton cloth and linen found in tombs. The Assyrian queen Semiramis is credited to have invented weaving in the region. These early weavers also practiced tapestry. As we get closer to the industrial revolution, textiles become more and more valuable and popular. As they are a necessity for more modernized societies, they are also an artistic outlet. 

 Lialia Kuchma Chicago, IL “Willow” mixed fibers;72”x48” 1994 

“Color is every, and lines are edges. There’s an infinite tapestry of eternal forms in nature, mind and spirit. They are the field of thought and the effect of creation.” Kuchma started her art career with printmaking which taught her all she knows about the use of color but she was drawn to tapestry due to the tactile nature between the weaver and fibers. 

Nancy De Camillis “Sometimes we learn a lot from our mistakes. It was because I ran out of warp and did not have enough fabric for sleeves that I first crocheted the sleeves, using the same yarns I’d used in the weft. I liked the different texture and so I continued to crochet the sleeves of jackets and tops.” Nancy designs and creates one-of-a-kind garments combining techniques of crochet and weaving in her weaving workshop in Kentucky. She began as a painter but thoroughly enjoyed texture experiments so she introduced herself to weaving with off-loom wall hangings.

Knitting

The way of making super pliable fabric from one long yarn and needles has been around for centuries and it’s not just your grandma’s favorite craft. A knit fabric is almost guaranteed to be everywhere you look. sweatpants? knit/ Leggings? knit. Socks? knit. As knits are an everyday textile of today and usually made on a machine in the modern world, the first knitters were extremely skilled. Spanish royalty would employ Muslim knitters to make them items like cushion covers and gloves. Moving into the 17th and 18th centuries, families of the Scottish Isles utilized the craft of knitting—especially sweaters for fisherman and other local workers—as a main source of income between the whole family.

Sweater Ca. 1895 American, Wool, MET Public Domain This Edwardian sweater is an example of what early women’s sportswear was like. Think about our active wear today and it is all knit, that is thanks to the geniuses behind this sweater. 

Knit art by Sarah Applebaum “Sarah Applebaum’s art installations are a luscious otherworldly combination between rainbow brite and crafty grandma. Knit art and crochet are very approachable, I just want to lounge in them.”

Crochet

The origin of crochet is a lot foggier than knitting and other handiworks that can be backed up with archeological evidence. The name comes from the Old Norse word for hook “Krokr”, but it is also called Healing in Norway, and Virkning in Sweden. True crochet developed in the 16th century according to crochet expert Annie Potter which is much later than other textile arts remains where found to be from. It became widely known as crochet lace in France and the lace textile is probably really how the art form gained popularity. One theory of the origin is that 3d crocheted dolls were first made in China and the art spread form there, but that is not proven. but researchers do believe that it must have come from Chinese needlework. Then during the Irish Potato Famine in 1845-1850, crochet became very popular for Irish families because of the growing poverty for the country. It was really their only form of entertainment in-between long work hours and craning over candlelight to complete their projects. Crochet has never become fully mechanized so it is not as widely used in ready to wear designs as knitting is. As certain techniques of the actual act of crochet have changed throughout the years, the art form as stayed pretty true to its unmarketable roots. 

Twiggy modeling a fully crocheted dress suit for an at home pattern packaging cover in the 1960s when crochet was all the rage.

There are so many other forms of textile arts to explore such as beadwork, quilting, embroidery, sculpture, and so much more. It really is a whole other medium with many avenues such as an acrylic painter will paint with different brushes and such. It is also amazing how we as a society have combined a necessary aspect of life with the world of art and aesthetics. Although the fashion industry can be over the top and problematic at times, I am proud to be in the business of textile arts.

Sources

“Weaving A Handbook of the Fiber Arts” by Shirley E. Held

Handwoven Magazine

The Weaver’s Journal Magazine

https://www.crochet.org/page/CrochetHistory

https://vintagevisage.typepad.com/my-blog/celebrities-in-knitting-and-crochet-patterns/

http://hautenature.blogspot.com/2009/08/sarah-applebaum-knit-art.html

http://www.historyofclothing.com/making-clothing/history-of-knitting/

https://www.fashionologiahistoriana.com/costume-history-legends-essays-in-english/the-knitwear-craze-new-knitted-garments-names-part-2

https://www.pexels.com/

“Ballet costumes constitute an essential part of stage design and can be considered as a visual record of a performance. They are often the only survival of a production, representing a living imaginary picture of the scene.”

I love everything about the tutu; even the origin of its name. The word “tutu” is derived from the french word used by many children “tu-tu” which means “bottom”. A tutu can make any dancer look like a dream come true. The garment itself is truly magical, and has been from its very roots. Let’s get into a little more about how the tutu came to be.

Early Ballet Costumes

As with any historical dress, we have to start with the before to get to what we know as a garment today. Tutus were not always the first choice for prima ballerinas. There is a long history of ballet costumes before the first tutu was worn.

The origins of ballet lie in the court spectacles of the Renaissance in France and Italy. Remember how immaculate the fashions of Marie Antoinette were like? That was how ballets looked back in the old days. This was because only royalty and nobility were the people to perform these shows. It was less about steps and more about showing off your nobility. Ballet was considered an art form that brought you closer to being a celestial body, or so they believed. This made a lot of the shows reflect that idea in there design by mimicking constellations.

Female dancers wore opulently embroidered silk tunics in several layers with fringes. Important components of the ballet dress were tightly laced, high-heeled and wedged boots for both dancers, which constituted characteristic footwear for this period. The first Russian ballet performance was staged in 1675, and the Russians adopted European ballet designs. Although costumes for male performers permitted complete freedom of movement, heavy garments and supporting structures for female dancers did not allow graceful gestures. There was a large importance of masks in ballet performances to stylize characters: “For demons, this was properly hideous; for nymphs it would be sweetly naïve, rivers wore venerable bearded masks, while dwarfs and juveniles might be encumbered with massive heads. Masks were also sometimes placed upon knees, elbows, and the chest to indicate something more of the character.” Rococo ballet costumes were actually even more crazy than court dress.

Nineteenth Century-Now

From the early nineteenth century, the ideals of Romanticism were reflected in female stage costumes through the introduction of close-fitting bodices, floral crowns, corsages, and pearls on fabrics, as well as necklace and bracelets; Neoclassical style still dominated the design of male costumes.

In 1832, Marie Taglioni’s gauze-layered white tutu in La Sylphide set a new trend in ballet costumes, in which silhouettes became tighter, revealing the legs and the permanently toe-shoed feet. From this point on, the silhouette of ballet costumes became more tight fitting. The choreography required that ballerinas to wear pointe shoes all the time.

Twentieth century leader in skirt hems raising: skirts changed gradually to become knee-length tutus designed to show off the point work and multiple turns.

Anatomy of a Tutu

As an aspiring ballet costumer, I have taken the liberty in learning more about how tutus are constructed and what each part is called. Some of this I knew as a dancer, and some I didn’t learn until I started learning about the actual construction.

Tutu Spotlight:

Number 3:

This is the starring quartet of the ballet The Awakening of Flora. This ballet is based of the myth of Flora the goddess of the flowers. Petipa choreographed this one act ballet in 1893. It follows Flora the goddess of the Flowers, Selene the goddess of the Moon, Eos the goddess of Dawn, and Hebe the goddess of Youth. I love these four tutu designs but especially the Flora one because of its pattern and detailed nature.

Number 2:

This is Giselle’s tutu from the National Ballet of Canada. Giselle is famously known for its cute and mysterious styles of romantic tutus to suite each act of the show. Giselle is a sweet village girl with a heart condition who falls in love and dances too long only to come to her death. She comes back as a “willie” (yes that is where the term is from) to haunt young men preying on young women and ends up accidentally being the demise of her lover. It is a tragic yet beautiful and magical story.

Number 1:

This is a character that everyone knows well; the Sugar Plum Fairy. She is the queen of the land of the sweets in Clara’s dream land in the ballet titled The Nutcracker. Possibly the most widely known ballet hence the iconic pink fairy’s beautiful costume. This is really the tutu all the little dancers dream about; this is the sugar plum fairy dancing in their heads.

While there is much more to learn about tutus and how they have evolved since the first appearance in 1832, there is a brief introduction of the magical garment worn by so many amazingly talented ballerinas and dreamed about by so many young dancers waiting for their chance to slip on that big tulle masterpiece.

Sources

https://www.dancemagazine.com/the-story-of-the-tutu-2306873745.html

tutuetoile.com

https://www.britannica.com/art/ballet-costume

https://australianballet.com.au/ballet-101/short-history-of-ballet

Undergarments started out to be a way to shape women’s bodies into an ideal form. Their evolution is proof that feminism exists and that the societal constructs thrown at our own self confidence are being broken down. Almost all historical undergarments you look at will reflect the silhouette that women would want to achieve in their dressing of the day, because they are after all the first layer of shaping an ensemble.

To start, we have “the Spanish Doublet;” circa 1590-1610. This garment is made from stiff linen material built up to resemble a castle figure on the women’s form. And, of course, there is a peplum sprouting out of the tiny tiny waist (Jacobs.) The shape these people were creating was a cone-shaped pedestal for the wealthy people’s head to rest on; thus the tiny waist and upwards pushing towards the shoulders.

The 18th century brings in a more natural silhouette, but still heavily shaped. This was the height of numerous petticoats and tightly strung corsets. In the mid 1700s, our lady Marie Antoinette models the panier perfectly as the most fashionable undergarment construct of the time. And then, as we know towards the turn of the century, silhouettes become more and more natural to follow the milkmaid trend going into the Empire period.

In the early 1800s, crinoline and petticoats came back into fashion and dwindled back down as the bustle was favored more. As we move through the 1900s, this is where we see major changes in the underwear department and freeing movements for women. In the Twenties, corsets were no more and the brassiere was worn very regularly (Holcomb). In the 50s, the wonder bra was invented, and the 60s is when women started to wear no bra at all. It keeps progressing from there the more we learn about feminism and the actual health benefits and not so beneficial parts of wearing bras.

Now, let’s walk through step by step how women would get dressed in three different time periods: 1860, 1925, and 1940.

1860

Women would always start with a chemise—a slip like dress; this layer was changed every day and it helped to protect corsets and other clothing from being damaged by oils from your body. A lady would also have stockings and garters to hold them up. Then you would put on your drawers, which are basically big boxer shorts that tie around your waist and have some sort of opening for using the restroom. Then is the corset, or stays. This would be laced in the back already and you close is with the basque in the front. You then tighten the lacing in the back to achieve the desired body shape.

Next is the petticoats, which the layers could go up to 6, but in 1860 you would only wear up to two and the fancier ones would be towards the outside while the plainer ones would be more hidden. Some people would also add a corset cover which is basically the historically version of a camisole. And lastly, this is when you would add any pads to help fill out your hips depending on the desired shape. Then, you put on your dress and you are all done up!

1925

Step in chemise, also known as cami knickers was very popular. It was the chemise and drawers put into one garment. The first step towards a free underwear future, in my opinion, as it helped women literally move more freely. Also the brassiere was introduced to minimize curves in the upper part of the body by not cinching in the waist as tiny as corsets achieved. This was to help along that ever so famous flapper silhouette. Design of undergarments was heavily influenced by the wild nightlife behavior that was happening at the time which influenced extravagance and bold color palettes. Women wore either garter belts during the day or elastic garters to hold up their stockings. Then, you would just slip on your evening dress that had no closures, grab your dancing shoes and party the night away.

1940

Due to the current events and rations during this time, women’s undergarments were often homemade. The subtle color palette from the 30s is still prevalent showing hues or cream and apricot. Also, now there are artificial textiles developed and in mass production. Stockings were made cheaper this way which was essential in this time. Knickers or panties were paired with the brassiere that now had lift and support for the wearer. Women’s favorite type of knickers were a tap pant style that was high and close to the waist with a button closure and flared to the hem well above the knee. This is possibly my favorite era for underwear as I think it is just so flattering to the body.

I very much enjoyed learning more about vintage underwear and hope to keep learning even more about how these garments were constructed, put on the body, and worn in everyday life. If you are looking for more resources to learn about how people used to get dressed, I would highly recommend watching the getting dressed chronologically playlist by CrowsEyeProductions on Youtube. Thanks for reading!

Sources

https://search-proquest-com.proxy1.cl.msu.edu/docview/1681423628?pq-origsite=summon

https://search-proquest-com.proxy1.cl.msu.edu/docview/440079348?pq-origsite=summon

https://www.youtube.com/user/CrowsEyeProductions